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Home / Art History 5th Edition Volume 1 Marilyn Stokstad Pdf

Art History 5th Edition Volume 1 Marilyn Stokstad Pdf

Art of the Gupta Empire

Red dots: the three master schools of Gupta fine art were located in Mathura, Varanasi and Nalanda.[one] White dots: secondary or peripheral locations.

Gupta art is the art of the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern Republic of india, with its peak betwixt about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced course until c. 550. The Gupta menses is generally regarded as a classic elevation and gilded historic period of Due north Indian fine art for all the major religious groups.[2] Gupta art is characterized by its "Classical decorum", in dissimilarity to the subsequent Medieval art, which "subordinated the figure to the larger religious purpose".[3] Although painting was plainly widespread, the surviving works are virtually all religious sculpture. The menses saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu fine art, while the production of the Buddha-effigy and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter oftentimes on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist fine art just across the northern border of Gupta territory, standing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern Bharat.

It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced nether the Vakataka dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500.[4] Their region contained very important sites such every bit the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic fashion continued to be used across most of northern Republic of india until about 550,[5] and arguably around 650.[vi] It was then followed past the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over fourth dimension) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this effectually 950.[7]

In general the style was very consequent beyond the empire and the other kingdoms where it was used.[8] The vast majority of surviving works are religious sculpture, generally in stone with some in metallic or terra cotta, and architecture, more often than not in rock with some in brick. The Ajanta Caves are about the sole survival from what was apparently a big and sophisticated body of painting,[ix] and the very fine coinage the chief survivals in metalwork.

Gupta India produced both textiles and jewellery, which are only known from representations in sculpture and especially the paintings at Ajanta.[10]

Groundwork [edit]

Gupta art was preceded past Kushan art, the art of the Kushan Empire in northern India, which flourished between the 1st and the 4th century CE and blended the tradition of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, influenced by Hellenistic artistic canons, and the more Indian art of Mathura.[11] In Western India, as visible in Devnimori, the Western Satraps (1st–quaternary century CE) developed a refined fine art, representing a Western Indian artistic tradition that was inductive to the ascension of Gupta fine art, and which may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward.[12] [xiii] [fourteen] In central Republic of india, the art of the Satavahanas had already created a rich Indian artistic idiom, as visible in Sanchi, which also influenced Gupta art.[14]

With the conquests of Samudragupta (r.c. 335/350-375 CE) and Chandragupta II (r.c. 380 – c. 415 CE), the Gupta Empire came to incorporate vast portions of fundamental, northern and northwestern India, equally far every bit the Punjab and the Arabian sea, standing and expanding on these earlier artistic traditions and developing a unique Gupta style, rising "to heights of sophistication, elegance and glory".[xvi] [17] [18] [xix] Unlike some other Indian dynasties before and later on them, and with the exception of the imagery on their coins, the Gupta regal family unit did not advertise their relationship to the art produced nether them by inscriptions, permit lone portraits that have survived.[twenty]

Early chronology [edit]

At that place are several pieces of statuary from the Gupta period which are inscribed with a date.[21] They piece of work as a benchmark for the chronology and the evolution of style under the Guptas. These Gupta statues are dated from the Gupta era (which starts in 318–319 CE), and sometimes mention the reigning ruler of that time.[21] Besides statuary, coinage is too an important chronological indicator.[22]

Although the Gupta Empire is reckoned to get-go subsequently Rex Gupta in the tardily tertiary century CE, the earliest known and dated sculptures of Gupta art come relatively late, near a century later, after the conquest of northwestern India under Samudragupta. Among the earliest is an inscribed pillar recording the installation of two Shiva Lingas in Mathura in 380 CE nether Chandragupta II, Samudragupta's successor.[23] Some other rare example is a statue of a seated Bodhisattva in the Mathura way with dhoti and shawl on the left shoulder, coming from Bodh Gaya and dated to "twelvemonth 64", presumably of the Gupta era, thought to exist 384 CE.[xv] This type remained a rare occurrence, as in most of the after Gupta statues the Buddha would be shown with the samghati monastic robe covering both shoulders.[xv]

Coinage likewise was a relatively late development, as well consecutive to Samugragupta'southward conquest of the northwest.[24] [25] [26] The Gupta coinage was initially in imitation of the Kushan types.[27] [28] [29]

Style [edit]

The Gupta style of bronze, especially every bit seen in the Buddha images, is characterized by several formative traits: ornate halos with floral and gem motifs, clothes with thin, diaphanous, pall, specific hair curls, meditative eyes, elongated earlobes, relatively thick lower lips, and often three lines across the neck.[thirty]

Sculpture [edit]

Iii main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath[31] and to a lesser extent Nalanda.[32] The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the master centres described below aids identification profoundly.[33]

Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often well-nigh life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are at present smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha'south previous lives are rare.[34] When scenes include i of the major figures and other less important ones, there is a peachy difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the Buddha'due south life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale.[35]

The lingam was the central murti in near temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, non even so worshipped, simply placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".[36] The primary bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[37] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all testify the aforementioned style,[38] and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued afterwards the Gupta period.[5]

The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the trunk as a serial of "smoothen, very simplified planes" is continued, though poses, specially in the many continuing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.[39] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[xl] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perchance information technology is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta power to communicate college spiritual states".[5]

Mathura school [edit]

The long-established Mathura school continued as i of the main two schools of Gupta Empire art, joined by the school of Varanasi and nearby Sarnath.[ane] Mathura sculpture is characterized by its usage of mottled red stone from Karri in the district, and its foreign influences, continuing the traditions of the art of Gandhara and the fine art of the Kushans.[41]

The art of Mathura continued to go more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta menses to reach a very loftier fineness of execution and effeminateness in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity. The style become elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pinkish sandstone.[1] Creative details tend to exist less realistic, equally seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to return the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the orante halos around the head of the Buddhas. The art of the Gupta is ofttimes considered equally the tiptop of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.[i]

Gupta fine art is besides characterized past an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a loftier importance given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including Bodhisattvas such as Avalokitesvara or divinities of Bramanical inspiration, and less focus on the events of the life of the Buddha which were abundantly illustrated through Jataka stories in the art of Bharhut and Sanchi (2nd–1st centuries BCE), or in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (1st–4th centuries CE).[42]

The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing of foreign influences; its style can be seen in Gupta statues to the e in areas as far as Allahabad, with the Mankuwar Buddha, dated to the reign of Kumaragupta I in 448.[43]

There are a number of "problematical" Buddhist and Jain images from Mathura whose dating is uncertain; many are dated with a low yr number, but which era is being used is unclear. These may well come up from the early Gupta period.[5]

  • Buddha in Abhaya Mudra. Kushana-Gupta transitional period. Circa third-4th century, Mathura.[44]

  • Standing Buddha, Mathura

  • Continuing Buddha, inscribed Gupta Era yr 115 (434 CE), Mathura.[45]

  • Head of a Buddha, 6th century.

  • A relief of the Trivikrama , "three strides of Vishnu", in the fine art of Mathura during the Gupta period.

  • Vishnu statue, 5th century, Mathura.

  • Seated Jain Tirthankara, circa 5th Century CE, Mathura.

Sarnath school [edit]

The Varanasi/ Sarnath style produced mainly Buddhist art, and "Sarnath Buddhas are probably the greatest single achievement of the Indian sculptor", largely setting the representation of the Buddha that was followed in eastern India and South-Due east Asia for many centuries, and the full general representation of the human body in India.[49] A number of dated examples bear witness that the mature fashion did not develop until 450–475.[fifty] Information technology is characterized by its yellowish sandstone from the quarries of Chunar, and lacks the strange influences seen in Mathura.[42] Folds on clothing have disappeared, and the clothing itself is extremely sparse, to the indicate of being transparent. The halo has become big and is often elaborately decorated.[51] The top edge of the heart-socket is very marked, forming a sharply carved edge.[52]

The Sarnath fashion was the origin of Buddha images in Siam, Cambodia and Java.[53]

  • Buddha head, Sarnath, 5th century

  • Buddha, 450-500

Other centres [edit]

Nalanda

Gupta sculptural qualities tend to deteriorate with fourth dimension, as in Nalanda in Bihar in the sixth century BCE, figures become heavier and tend to be made in metallic. This evolution suggests a third schoolhouse of Gupta art in the surface area Nalanda and Pataliputra, besides the two main centres of Mathura and Vanarasi. The jumbo Sultanganj Buddha in copper from the area of Pataliputra is a uniquely big survival from this school, but typical in style.[42] In the same monastery two similar merely much smaller (and slightly later) figures in stone were found, one at present on brandish in the British Museum.[57]

Udayagiri Caves/Vidisha

The "offset dated sculptures in a fully-fledged early Gupta mode" come from the rock-cutting Udayagiri Caves and the surrounding expanse nearly Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.[58] Though the caves, all but one Hindu, are "of negligible importance architecturally", around the cavern entrances are a number of stone relief panels, some with large deities. They are in a relatively rough and heavy manner, but oft with a powerful impact; Harle describes the mukhalinga in Cave 4 as "pulsating with psychic power". The nearly famous is the 7 x iv metre relief of Vishnu in the class of the giant boar Varaha, raising the globe from the primordial waters, watched by rows of much smaller gods, sages and angelic beings. One cave as well has an extremely rare inscription relating a site to the Gupta court, recording the donation of a minister of Candragupta 2.[59] The famous Iron colonnade of Delhi is thought probable to have been originally set up exterior the caves.

  • Caput of Vishnu from Vidisha near Udayagiri, Primal Bharat, 4th century

Eran

Eran in Madhya Pradesh has a "pillar" or large unmarried cavalcade dated 484/five past an inscription of Buddhagupta, the only continuing Gupta example, with two Garuda figures at the summit (illustrated below). Information technology had two big Varaha figures outside the ruined Gupta temple. The manner of the sculpture is somewhat provincial. Still at the site is a huge and impressive boar on 4 legs, with no human characteristics, its body covered with rows of small figures representing the sages who clung to the hairs of Varaha to save themselves from the waters. Now moved to the university museum at Sagar is a figure with the same body and pose equally that at Udayagiri, "one of the greatest of all Indian sculptures ... zip tin match the figure's air of insolent triumph". Both are dated to the belatedly fifth century.[63]

Others

The surviving sanctuary of the early sixth-century Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh has a typically fine doorway, and large relief panels on the other three walls. These are now external, but would originally gave given on to the covered ambulatory. Though "majestic", these bear witness "the sturdiness of early Gupta sculpture is yielding to a softer, more than delicate and ultimately weaker fashion".[64] The row of men beneath the sleeping Vishnu have "stylized poses, probably imitated from the theatre".[65]

There are also other small-scale centres of Gupta sculpture, particularly in the areas of Dasapura and Mandasor, where a huge eight-faced mukhalinga (probably early 6th-century) found in the river has been reinstalled in the Pashupatinath Temple, Mandsaur.[66]

The Greco-Buddhist fine art of Gandhara continued a late phase through at least nigh of the Gupta menstruum, having too been a formative influence.[58]

Very important stone-cut sites exterior the Gupta Empire proper, to the s, are the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in the Gupta period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun around the end of it. As information technology was mainly restricted to the Gangetic plainly, the vast Gupta territories included relatively few rock-cut sites with much sculpture. The later Ajanta style of sculpture is somewhat heavy, but sometimes "monumental" in the large seated shrine Buddhas, but other smaller figures are oftentimes very fine, every bit is the ornamental carving on columns and door-frames.[67] When combined with the painted walls, the effect can be considered over-decorated, and defective "motifs on a larger calibration to serve as focal points". The main internal carving was probably completed past 478, though votive figures to the sides of many cave entrances may exist later. The Ajanta mode is only seen at a few other sites nearby. After work ended there much of the skilled workforce, or their descendants, probably concluded up working at Elephanta and then Ellora.[68]

Unlike the series of caves side by side at Ajanta, the main interest at Elephanta is the largest cavern, a huge Shiva temple, and above all the colossal triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, which "because information technology is and so amazingly skilfully placed in relation to the diverse external entrances ... receives exactly the amount of light necessary to make information technology look as if information technology is emerging from a blackness void, manifestation from the unmanifest".[69] Also from the Mumbai area, the Parel Relief or (Parel Shiva) is an important late Gupta monolithic relief of Shiva in seven forms.[lxx]

  • Vishnu, Central India, fifth century

  • Mother Goddess from archway of a Hindu Temple, Tanesara-Mahadeva (nigh Udaipur), suggesting connections with the Fine art of Gandhara.[71] 5th-6th[72] [73] or early seventh century CE.[74]

Terracotta sculpture [edit]

The primeval terracottas datable to the Gupta period appear under the Western Satraps at the Buddhist site of Devnimori in Gujarat circa 375–400 CE, representing the southern extension of Gandharan influence to the subcontinent, which persisted locally with the sites of Mīrpur Khās, Śāmalājī or Dhānk, a century before this influence would further extend to Ajanta and Sarnath.[75] [76] It has even been suggested that the art of the Western Satraps and Devnimori were at the origin of Gupta material civilisation, but this remains a subject area of debate.[77]

The Gupta menstruation saw the production of many sculptures in terracotta of very fine quality, and they are similar in style across the empire, to an even greater extent than the stone sculpture.[5] Some tin notwithstanding be seen in their original settings on the brick temple at Bhitargaon, where the large relief panels accept almost worn away, simply diverse heads and figures survive at higher levels.[78] The very elegant pair of river goddesses excavated from a temple at Ahichchhatra are 1.47 metres loftier.

Sculpture in metal [edit]

The over life-size copper Sultanganj Buddha (2.3 metres tall) is "the only remaining metal statue of any size" from the Gupta menstruation, out of what was at the time probably approximately as numerous a type as rock or stucco statues.[81] There are, still, many much smaller almost-identical figures (up to about 50 cm tall), several in American museums. The metal Brahma from Mirpur-Khas is older, but about one-half the size of the Sultanganj figure. The Jain Akota bronzes and another finds are much smaller still, probably figures for shrines in well-off homes.[82]

The style of the Sultanganj figure, made by lost-wax casting, is comparable to slightly earlier rock Buddha figures from Sarnath in "the smoothly rounded attenuation of body and limbs" and the very thin, clinging body garment, indicated in the lightest of ways. The figure has "a feeling of animation imparted past the unbalanced opinion and the movement suggested by the sweeping silhouette of the enveloping robe".[81]

Coins and metalwork [edit]

Survivals of decorated secular metalwork are very rare,[83] but a silverish plate in the Cleveland Museum of Art shows a crowded festival scene in rather worn relief.[84] In that location is as well a highly decorated object in bronzed iron that is thought to be a weight for an architect's "collapse" or measuring line, now in the British Museum.[85]

The gold coinage of the Guptas, with its many types and infinite varieties and its inscriptions in Sanskrit, are regarded as the finest coins in a purely Indian way.[86] The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing diverse rituals, as well equally argent coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps past Chandragupta Two.[87]

Coinage [edit]

Gupta coinage only started with the reign of Samudragupta (335/350-375 CE), or perchance at the terminate of the reign of his father Chandragupta I, for whom only i coin type in his name is known ("Chandragupta I and his queen"), probably a commemorative issue minted by his son.[88] [25] [26] [89] The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight standard, techniques and designs, post-obit the conquests of Samudragupta in the northwest.[25] [26] [90] The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the Roman name Denarius aureus.[91] [92] [93] The imagery on Gupta coins was initially derived from Kushan types, merely the features soon became more Indian in both style and field of study affair compared to earlier dynasties, where Greco-Roman and Persian styles were mostly followed.[94] [95] [96]

Silver plate with a festival scene

The usual layout is an obverse with a portrait of the king that is normally full-length, whether standing, seated or riding a equus caballus, and on the reverse a goddess, most often seated on a throne. Oft the king is sacrificing. The choice of images can take political meaning, referring to conquests and local tastes; the types often vary between parts of the empire.[97]

Types showing the king hunting and killing various animals: lions (the "lion-slayer" type), tigers and rhino very probable refer to new conquests in the areas where those animals were still establish. They may also reverberate influence from Sassanian silverware from Persia.[98] The king standing and holding a bow to i side (the "archer" type) was used by at least eight kings; it may take been intended to associate the rex with Rama. Profile heads of the rex are used on some silverish coins for Western provinces added to the empire.[99]

Some gold coins commemorate the Vedic Ashvamedha equus caballus sacrifice ritual, which the Gupta kings practised; these have the sacrificial horse on the obverse and the queen on the reverse.[100] Samudragupta is shown playing a string instrument, wearing huge earrings, but only a simple dhoti. The only blazon produced under Chandragupta I shows him and his queen standing adjacent. The bird Garuda, bearer of Vishnu, is used as a symbol of the dynasty on many argent coins.[101] Some of these were in the past misidentified as fire altars.[102]

The argent coinage of the Guptas was made in imitation of the coinage of the Western Satraps post-obit their overthrow by Chandragupta II, inserting the Gupta peacock symbol on the reverse just retaining traces of the Greek legend and the ruler'southward portrait on the obverse.[103] [104] Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also introduced another new types.[86] The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of Chandragupta II and was more original in pattern. Eight out of the nine types known to have been struck past him have a figure of Garuda and the proper noun of the king on it. The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gilt coins and the disappearance of silvery money, bear ample evidence to their concise territory.[86]

  • Samudragupta (left) playing a musical instrument; Goddess, right, c 335-380

  • Samudragupta coin with Ashvamedha horse standing in front end of a yūpa sacrificial postal service, with legend "The Rex of Kings, who had performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, wins heaven afterwards conquering the earth".[105] [106]

  • The queen, reverse of terminal, is belongings a chowrie for the fanning of the horse and a needle-like pointed instrument, with fable "One powerful plenty to perform the Ashvamedha sacrifice".[105] [106]

Architecture [edit]

Hindu temple of Bhitargaon, belatedly 5th century, but considerably restored.[110].

For reasons that are not entirely articulate, for the almost role the Gupta period represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut compages, with the beginning wave of construction finishing earlier the empire was assembled, and the second wave get-go in the belatedly 5th century, just equally it was ending. This is the case, for case, at the Ajanta Caves, with an early group fabricated by 220 CE at the latest, and a afterward 1 probably all after near 460.[111] Instead, the period has left almost the beginning surviving free-standing structures in India, in detail the ancestry of Hindu temple architecture. As Milo Beach puts it: "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized architectural frameworks",[112] the "precious objects" being primarily the icons of gods.

The well-nigh famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under other dynasties in Cardinal India, and in the case of Ellora after the Gupta menses, simply primarily reverberate the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains past far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[113] The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[114] and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture, although it has lost its mandapa and covered ambulatory for parikrama.[115]

Examples of early on North Indian Hindu temples that take survived after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early on 5th century),[116] Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465),[117] Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive,[118] and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving shut comparator.[119]

At that place are a number of dissimilar wide models, which would continue to be the case for more a century later the Gupta period, merely temples such as Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17, which are small but massively built rock prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, prove the nearly common basic plan that is elaborated in after temples to the present day. Both of these accept flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would go uncommon past most the eighth century. The Mahabodhi Temple, Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop already all prove high superstructures of dissimilar shapes.[120] The Chejarla Kapoteswara temple demonstrates that free-standing chaitya-hall temples with barrel roofs connected to be built, probably with many smaller examples in woods.[121]

  • The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

  • Vishnu temple in Eran, late 5th century.

Pillars [edit]

Pillars with inscriptions were erected, recording the main achievements of Gupta rulers. Whereas the Pillars of Ashoka were cylindrical, smooth and finished with the famous Mauryan polish, Gupta pillars had a rough surface ofttimes shaped into geometrical facets.[122]

Painting [edit]

Ajanta cavern 17, frescoes in a higher place a lintel

Painting was plainly a major fine art in Gupta times, and the varied paintings of the Ajanta Caves, which are much the all-time survivals (almost the only ones), show a very mature style and technique, conspicuously the upshot of a well-developed tradition.[123] Indeed, it is recorded that skill in amateur painting, especially portraits, was considered a desirable accomplishment among Gupta elites, including royalty. Ajanta was ruled by the powerful Vakataka dynasty, beyond the territory of the Gupta Empire, just information technology is thought to closely reflect the metropolitan Gupta fashion.[124] The other survivals are from the Bagh Caves, now mostly removed to the Gujari Mahal Archaeological Museum in Gwalior Fort, Ellora, and Cave III of the Badami cavern temples.[125]

At Ajanta, it is thought that established teams of painters, used to decorating palaces and temples elsewhere, were brought in when required to decorate a cave. Mural paintings survive from both the before and after groups of the caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of aboriginal painting in India from this period, and "evidence that by Sātavāhana times, if non earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic way, dealing with big groups of people in a way comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars".[126]

4 of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved landscape paintings which "have come up to represent Indian landscape painting to the non-specialist",[126] and represent "the smashing glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art".[127] They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves sixteen and 17, and what used to thought of as later paintings in Caves ane and 2. Nonetheless, the widely accepted new chronology proposed by Spink places both groups in the fifth century, probably earlier 478.[128]

The paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into moisture plaster.[129] All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported past discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. Dissimilar much Indian mural painting, compositions are non laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, merely show large scenes spreading in all directions from a unmarried figure or group at the centre.[130] The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.[131] The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was deputed by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which evidence previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than equally a deer or elephant or other animal.[132] The Ajanta paintings have seriously deteriorated since they were rediscovered in 1819, and are now generally hard to appreciate at the site. A number of early on attempts to copy them met with misfortune.

Only landscape paintings survive, merely it is clear from literary sources that portable paintings, including portraits, were mutual, probably including illustrated manuscripts.[129]

Cave 1 at Ajanta

  • I of 4 frescos for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale. The rex announces he abdicates to become an ascetic.[133]

  • Sibi Jataka: king undergoes the traditional rituals for renouncers. He receives a formalism bathroom.[134] [135]

Chronology [edit]

The chronology of Gupta art is quite critical to the fine art history of the region. Fortunately, several statues are precisely dated, based on inscriptions referring to the various rulers of the Gupta Empire, and giving their regnal dates in the Gupta era.

Final period: Sondani (525 CE) [edit]

The sculptures at Sondani and surrounding areas of Mandsaur are a skillful marker for the concluding period of Gupta Art, every bit they were commissionned by Yasodharman (ruled 515 – 545 CE) effectually 525 CE, in celebration of his victory confronting the Alchon Hun male monarch Mihirakula.[146] [147] This corresponds to the last stage of Gupta cultural and political unity in the subcontinent, and after that betoken and for the adjacent centuries, Indian politics became extremely fragmented, with the territory being divided between smaller dynasties.[148] The fine art of Sondani is considered as transitional between Gupta art and the art of Medieval India: it represents "an aesthetic which hovered between the classical decorum of Gupta art on the one mitt and on the other the medieval canons which subordinated the figure to the larger religious purpose".[149]

  • Sondani colonnade majuscule, circa 525 CE

Influences in Southeast Asia [edit]

Central Thailand, Dvaravati, Mon-Dvaravati style, 7th–9th Century.

Indian fine art, specially Gupta and Mail service-Gupta art from Eastern India, was influential in the development of Buddhist and Hindu art in Southeast Asia from the 6th century CE.[150] The Mon people of the kingdom of Dvaravati in modern Thailand were among the first to adopt Buddhism, and developed a particular style of Buddhist fine art. Mon-Davarati statues of the Buddha take facial features and pilus styles reminiscent of the art of Mathura.[150] In pre-Angkorian Cambodia from the 7th century CE, Harihara statues fusing the characteristics of Shiva and Vishnu are known.[150]

  • A seated Buddha in Dvaravati style, 6th century CE

  • Harihara statue, Cambodia, seventh century CE

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d Mookerji, 142
  2. ^ Rowland'south chapter 15 is called "The Gilded Historic period: The Gupta Catamenia; Harle, 88
  3. ^ Williams, Joanna (1972). "The Sculpture of Mandasor" (PDF). Archives of Asian Art. 26: 64. ISSN 0066-6637.
  4. ^ Harle, 118
  5. ^ a b c d eastward Harle, 89
  6. ^ Rowland, 215
  7. ^ Harle, 199
  8. ^ Harle, 89; Rowland, 216
  9. ^ Harle, 88, 355–361
  10. ^ Rowland, 252–253
  11. ^ Stokstad, Marilyn; Cothren, Michael W. (2013). Art History (5th Edition) Chapter 10: Art Of South And Southeast Asia Earlier 1200. Pearson. pp. 306–308. ISBN978-0205873487.
  12. ^ Schastok, Sara L. (1985). The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western Bharat. BRILL. pp. 23–31. ISBN978-9004069411.
  13. ^ a b c The Periodical of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Volume 4 1981 Number I An Infrequent Grouping of Painted Buddha Figures at Ajanṭā, p.97 and Note 2
  14. ^ a b "Gupta fine art in north India of the fifth century did receive the heritage of the Mathura as well every bit Ksatrapa-Satavahana arts." in Pal, Pratapaditya (1972). Aspects of Indian Fine art: Papers Presented in a Symposium at the Los Angeles Canton Museum of Art, October, 1970. Brill Archive. p. 47. ISBN9789004036253.
  15. ^ a b c d Rhi, Ju-Hyung (1994). "From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Outset of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art". Artibus Asiae. 54 (3/4): 223. doi:10.2307/3250056. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3250056.
  16. ^ Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2015). World History. Cengage Learning. p. 279. ISBN9781305537781.
  17. ^ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997). The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 143. ISBN9788120804401.
  18. ^ Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1995). Ancient India: History and Culture. Pop Prakashan. pp. 171–173. ISBN9788171546947.
  19. ^ Lowenstein, Tom (2012). The Culture of Aboriginal India and Southeast Asia. The Rosen Publishing Grouping, Inc. p. 53. ISBN9781448885077.
  20. ^ Harle, 88
  21. ^ a b Agrawal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 98–100. ISBN978-81-208-0592-7.
  22. ^ Pal, 69
  23. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
  24. ^ Altekar, A. southward (1957). Coinage Of The Gupta Empire. p. 39.
  25. ^ a b c Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997). The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. xxx. ISBN9788120804401.
  26. ^ a b c Higham, Charles (2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase Publishing. p. 82. ISBN9781438109961.
  27. ^ "It was his conquests which brought to him the golden utilized in his coinage and also the cognition of its technique caused from his acquaintance with Kushan (eastern Punjab) coins. His earliest coins began as imitations of these Kushan coins, and of their foreign features which were gradually replaced past Indian features in his later coins." in Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997). The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. thirty. ISBN9788120804401.
  28. ^ Pal, 78
  29. ^ Art, Los Angeles County Museum of; Pal, Pratapaditya (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 . Academy of California Printing. p. 73. ISBN9780520059917.
  30. ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2019). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist cloth civilisation of Gujarat and beyond, c. Advertizement 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art". p. 166. "Withal, all the Gupta Buddha images show 1 or more formative-Gupta characteristics: the ornamentation of the halo with floral and gem motifs, the garments with diaphanous drapery, hair curls, meditative eyes, elongated earlobes, the pronounced lower lip and/or 3 lines across his cervix (Miyaji 1980: 16).
  31. ^ Asher, Frederick M. (2003), "Sarnath", Oxford Art Online, Oxford Academy Press, doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t076054, ISBN978-i-884446-05-4 , retrieved 2020-12-25
  32. ^ Mookerji, one, 143
  33. ^ Harle, 89; Rowland, 216; Mookerji, 143
  34. ^ Harle, 87–88
  35. ^ Rowland, 234
  36. ^ Harle, 87–88, 88 quoted
  37. ^ Rowland, 235
  38. ^ Rowland, 232
  39. ^ Rowland, 233
  40. ^ Rowland, 230–233, 232 and 233 quoted
  41. ^ Rowland, 229–232; Mookerji, 143
  42. ^ a b c d e Mookerji, 143
  43. ^ Mookerji, 142–143
  44. ^ "Kushana-Gupta transitional period" per Mathura Museum characterization, visible on the photograph.
  45. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Establish of Indian Studies.
  46. ^ For English summary, run into folio lxxx Schmid, Charlotte (1997). Les Vaikuṇṭha gupta de Mathura : Viṣṇu ou Kṛṣṇa?. pp. sixty–88.
  47. ^ Rowland, 234–235; Harle, 109–110
  48. ^ Harle, James C. (Jan 1994). The Fine art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale Academy Press. p. 109. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
  49. ^ Harle, 107–110, 107 quoted
  50. ^ Harle, 110
  51. ^ Rowland, 232–237;
  52. ^ Harle, 89–ninety
  53. ^ Harle, 109–110; Rowland, 235
  54. ^ Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors. p. 47.
  55. ^ "Mankuwar Buddha Image Inscription of the Time of Kumaragupta I siddham". siddham.uk.
  56. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
  57. ^ British Museum folio [ permanent dead link ]
  58. ^ a b Harle, 92
  59. ^ Harle, 92–97, 93 quoted
  60. ^ Harle, 93
  61. ^ Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (28 November 2016). Great Events in Faith: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [three volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 271. ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.
  62. ^ BECKER, CATHERINE (2010). "Not Your Average Boar: The Colossal Varāha at Erāṇ, an Iconographic Innovation". Artibus Asiae. 70 (i): 127. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 20801634.
  63. ^ Harle, 97–100, 99–100 quoted
  64. ^ Harle, 113
  65. ^ Harle, 113–114
  66. ^ Mookerji, 144; Harle, 114
  67. ^ Harle, 118–120 (120 quoted), 122–124
  68. ^ Harle, 122
  69. ^ Harle, 124
  70. ^ Harle, 124
  71. ^ "Mother Goddess". Cleveland Museum of Art. 31 October 2018.
  72. ^ India, Rajasthan, Tanesara-Mahadeva, Gupta Period. "Matrika from Tanesara".
  73. ^ "Mother Goddess". Cleveland Museum of Art. 31 Oct 2018.
  74. ^ Harle, James C. (Jan 1994). The Art and Compages of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Printing. p. 115. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
  75. ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2020). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material culture of Gujarat and across, c. AD 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art" (PDF). Archaeopress Archaeology. pp. 156–157. Furthermore, I will trace the waves of Gandhāran influences observed at Devnīmorī, which within, or after, a century or then eventually reached Sārnāth and Ajaṇṭā and locally persisted at Śāmalājī in north Gujarat, Dhānk in Saurashtra in Bharat, and Mīrpur Khās in Sindh in Islamic republic of pakistan.
  76. ^ Ishikawa, Ken. The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art. p. 168. Overall, the early Gupta Jain tīrthaṅkara images from Vidiśā are regarded as anticipating, together with the Bodh Gayā Buddha/Bodhisattva prototype and fully-fledged Gupta-mode buddha images at Devnīmorī before long afterward, the fully-fledged/mature Gupta Buddha images at Mathurā and Sārnāth that developed during the post-obit fifth century AD.
  77. ^ Ishikawa, Ken (2019). "More Gandhāra than Mathurā: substantial and persistent Gandhāran influences provincialized in the Buddhist material civilisation of Gujarat and beyond, c. AD 400–550" in "The Global Connections of Gandhāran Art". pp. 156ff. Nonetheless, the thought that Devnīmorī or the Western Kṣatrapas were the progenitor of Gupta cloth civilization has long been a field of study of debate (Williams 1982 58-9). Although the role of western India in the germination of pan-Indian Gupta material civilisation is a notoriously problematic outcome, we might farther contextualize Devnīmorī past reconsidering the extent of the late Gandhāran influence as well as pre-existing cloth culture of Gujarat.
  78. ^ Harle, 115
  79. ^ Indian Art. Prince of Wales Museum of Western Republic of india. 1964. pp. 2–4. The terracotta figures of Mirpur Khas represent the Gupta idiom every bit it flourished in Sindh. (...) In the terracottas of Mirpur Khas, of which the Museum has a near representative drove, i may see the synthesis of Gandhara and Gupta traditions . Here the sometime sacrosanct forms of Gandhara are moulded in the Gupta grapheme of nobility , restraint and spirituality and the outcome is very pleasing. The figures of the Buddha from Mirpur Khas show transformation from the Gandhara to Gupta idiom , which the figures of the donor and Kubera show well adult Gupta types.
  80. ^ Harle, James C. (Jan 1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. p. 117. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
  81. ^ a b Rowland, 237
  82. ^ Rowland, 237–239
  83. ^ Rowland, 253
  84. ^ "Plate with a Scene of Revelry", Cleveland Museum of Art
  85. ^ Rowland, 253–254
  86. ^ a b c The Coins Of Republic of india, by Dark-brown, C.J. p.13-20
  87. ^ Allan, J. & Stern, Due south. Chiliad. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
  88. ^ Altekar, A. southward (1957). Coinage Of The Gupta Empire. p. 39.
  89. ^ Brown, C. J. (1987). The Coins of India. Asian Educational Services. p. 41. ISBN9788120603455.
  90. ^ Sen, Sudipta (2019). Ganges: The Many Pasts of an Indian River. Yale Academy Printing. p. 205. ISBN9780300119169.
  91. ^ "Known by the term Dinars in early Gupta inscriptions, their gold coinage was based on the weight standard of the Kushans i.e. 8 gms/120 grains. It was replaced in the time of Skandagupta past a standard of lxxx ratis or 144 grains" Vanaja, R. (1983). Indian Coinage. National Museum.
  92. ^ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997). The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 31. ISBN9788120804401.
  93. ^ Gupta inscriptions using the term "Dinara" for coin: No 5-9, 62, 64 in Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors.
  94. ^ "Information technology was his conquests which brought to him the gilded utilized in his coinage and also the cognition of its technique acquired from his associate with Kushan (eastern Punjab) coins. His earliest coins began every bit imitations of these Kushan coins, and of their strange features which were gradually replaced by Indian features in his later coins." in Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997). The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 30. ISBN9788120804401.
  95. ^ Pal, 78
  96. ^ Art, Los Angeles Canton Museum of; Pal, Pratapaditya (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 . University of California Printing. p. 73. ISBN9780520059917.
  97. ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Bajpai, 121; Pal, 78–80
  98. ^ Sircar, 215–217; Pal, 74–75. The culling explanation is that these animals were notwithstanding more widespread than is commonly idea.
  99. ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Pal, 73–74
  100. ^ Glucklich, 111–113; Mookerji, 140; Pal, 79–lxxx suggests instead the female person figure may correspond Vijaya, the goddess of victory.
  101. ^ Mookerji, 139–141; Pal, 73–75
  102. ^ Bajpai, 121–124
  103. ^ Prasanna Rao Bandela (2003). Coin splendour: a journey into the by. Abhinav Publications. pp. 112–. ISBN978-81-7017-427-1 . Retrieved 21 Nov 2011.
  104. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta Ii is to exist seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the contrary, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p. cli
  105. ^ a b Houben, Jan E. M.; Kooij, Karel Rijk van (1999). Violence Denied: Violence, Not-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in Southward Asian Cultural History. BRILL. p. 128. ISBN978-90-04-11344-2.
  106. ^ a b Ganguly, Dilip Kumar (1984). History and Historians in Ancient Bharat . Abhinav Publications. p. 152. ISBN978-0-391-03250-vii.
  107. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta Two is to exist seen in his rare silver coins which are more direct imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the onetime inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type ... for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc.", p.cli
  108. ^ Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (2016). Groovy Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [3 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 271. ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.
  109. ^ Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (28 November 2016). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [iii volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 271. ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.
  110. ^ Harle, James C. (Jan 1994). The Fine art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale Academy Press. p. 116. ISBN978-0-300-06217-v.
  111. ^ Ajanta chronology is withal under word, but this is the view of Spink, accepted by many.
  112. ^ Beach, Milo, Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, (Photographs by Morna Livingston), p. 25, 2002, Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1568983247, 9781568983240, google books
  113. ^ J.C. Harle 1994, pp. 118–22, 123–26, 129–35. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJ.C._Harle1994 (help)
  114. ^ J.C. Harle 1994, pp. 92–97. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFJ.C._Harle1994 (help)
  115. ^ Harle, 113–114; run across too site entries in Michell (1990)
  116. ^ Michell (1990), 192
  117. ^ Michael Meister (1987), Hindu Temple, in The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor: Mircea Eliade, Book 14, Macmillan, ISBN 0-02-909850-5, page 370
  118. ^ Michell (1990), 157; Michell (1988), 96
  119. ^ Harle, 111–113, 136–138; Michell (1988), 90, 96–98; see as well site entries in Michell (1990)
  120. ^ Harle, 111–113; Michell (1988), 94–98
  121. ^ Harle, 175
  122. ^ "Gupta – artistes built it with the crude surface and with the different shapes of square, octagonal and hexagonal. They decorated the pillars with the meandering creepers, flowers of blue and red lotuses, pitchers and the pattern of leogryph." Sudhi, Padma (1993). Gupta Fine art, a Written report from Aesthetic and Approved Norms. Galaxy Publications. p. 120. ISBN978-81-7200-007-three.
  123. ^ Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2005). A World History of Art. Laurence Male monarch Publishing. p. 244. ISBN978-ane-85669-451-3.
  124. ^ Harle, James C. (Jan 1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. p. 118. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
  125. ^ Harle, 355, 361
  126. ^ a b Harle, 355
  127. ^ Harle, 356
  128. ^ Harle, 355–361; Spink
  129. ^ a b Harle, 361
  130. ^ Harle, 359
  131. ^ Harle, 355–361
  132. ^ Spink 2008
  133. ^ "Mahajanaka Jataka: Ajanta Cave one". University of Minnesota.
  134. ^ a b c Benoy Behl (2004), Ajanta, the fountainhead, Frontline, Book 21, Result 20
  135. ^ Gupte & Mahajan 1962, pp. 32–33, Plate 11.
  136. ^ Gupte & Mahajan 1962, pp. eight–9, Plate Iv.
  137. ^ Spink 2009, pp. 138–140. sfn fault: no target: CITEREFSpink2009 (assistance)
  138. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
  139. ^ Curta, Florin; Holt, Andrew (28 November 2016). Great Events in Religion: An Encyclopedia of Pivotal Events in Religious History [three volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 271. ISBN978-1-61069-566-4.
  140. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
  141. ^ Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). Inscriptions Of The Early on Gupta Kings And Their Successors. p. 47.
  142. ^ "Mankuwar Buddha Epitome Inscription of the Time of Kumaragupta I siddham". siddham.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.
  143. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Establish of Indian Studies.
  144. ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
  145. ^ Majumdar, B. (1937). Guide to Sarnath. p. 89.
  146. ^ Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
  147. ^ Williams, Joanna (1972). "The Sculpture of Mandasor" (PDF). Archives of Asian Art. 26: 63. ISSN 0066-6637.
  148. ^ "The reign of Yasodharman thus forms an important dividing point between the period of the imperial Guptas, whom he emulated, and the following centuries, when India cruel into a kaleidoscopic confusion of shifting smaller dynasties" in Williams, Joanna (1972). "The Sculpture of Mandasor" (PDF). Archives of Asian Fine art. 26: 52. ISSN 0066-6637.
  149. ^ Williams, Joanna (1972). "The Sculpture of Mandasor" (PDF). Archives of Asian Art. 26: 64. ISSN 0066-6637.
  150. ^ a b c Stokstad, Marilyn; Cothren, Michael Due west. (2013). Art History (5th Edition) Chapter 10: Art Of South And Southeast Asia Before 1200. Pearson. pp. 323–325. ISBN978-0205873487.

References [edit]

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  • Glucklich, Ariel (2007). The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195314052.
  • Gupte, Ramesh Shankar; Mahajan, B. D. (1962). Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves. D. B. Taraporevala.
  • Harle, J.C., The Fine art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
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  • Michell, George (1990), The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of Republic of india, Book 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1990, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140081445
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  • Spink, Walter M. (2008), Ajanta Lecture, Korea May 2008 (revised September 2008)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_art